77. What is applied to things, and sometimes to other objects when regarded as things.

Ex. "I will take what you send." "There is in my carriage what has life, soul, and beauty."

78. What is used when the objects spoken of may be represented by the indefinite term thing or things and which. It represents them both, and does not have, in modern usage, the word thing or things understood before it. See Language, p. 89.

79. That is used in preference to who or which when both persons and other objects are referred to; nearly always when the relative clause is restrictive-especially after the superlative degree, after who, same, very, no, all, any, each, every, and frequently after the personal pronouns, or after predicate-nominatives referring to it; and generally where who or which would seem less proper, or would not sound so well.

Ex.-"The SHIP and PASSENGERS that were lost at sea." "In WORDS that breathe, and THOUGHTS that burn." "This is the HARDEST LESSON that we have yet had.' "WHO that respects himself, would tell a lie?" "The SAME STAR that we saw last night." "No MAN that knows him, would credit him." "And ALL that wealth or beauty ever gave." "Ir is selfishness and vanity, that makes a woman a coquet."

80. The relative pronoun or relative clause is restrictive, when it makes the word to which it refers denote only such objects as are described by the relative clause: in the restrictive sense, it modifies an idea; in the other, it adds an idea.

Ex.-"RICHES that are ill gotten, are seldom enjoyed." Of course not all riches. "Read thy doom in the FLOWERS, which fade and die." Not restrictive. "He was a MAN whom nothing could turn aside from the PATH which duty pointed out." Restrictive. "God must be conscious of every MOTION that arises in the material UNIVERSE, which he thus essentially pervades." The first relative is restrictive; the other is not. "They enacted such LAWS as were needed." "Catch

what comes."

It is often difficult to determine whether that should be preferred to who or which. Sometimes either may be used with equal propriety. When the antecedent is so fixed or definite by itself, or so limited by other definite words,such as the, that, those, that the relative clause can not vary its meaning, who or which may be allowable or even preferable; when the antecedent is an indefinite term, or is made indefinite by such modifying words as a, some, any, every, &c., that may be preferable, or even necessary to make the meaning sufficiently definite, or to show precisely what objects are meant.

"He is engaged in speculations which are very profitable," might suggest that all speculations are very profitable: say, "in speculations that." "He is a man who cheats every body," may be understood to mean, that rascality is the essential quality of a man or of a gentleman: say, "a man that." "It is the thought or sentiment which lies under the figured expression, that gives it its merit.' Here no change could be made without injuring the sentence: which and that, as here used, (though both restrictive,) well show the subordinate character of the middle clause, and the restrictive character of the last clause. don't doubt you'll like my friend, whom I have sent with a most trusty and faithful servant, who deserves your friendship and favor." This sentence is not so clear as it might be: had the author said, "and who deserves," the reference would have been clearly to "friend;" had he said, "that deserves," to "servant."

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"I

81. That is often used as an adjective or as a conjunction; so that you must regard it a pronoun, only when who or which can be put for it without destroying the sense.

Ex.-"That10 man said that's he knows your father." "The ablest man that [who] spoke on the subject." "The same horse that [which] I rode."

82. As is generally a relative pronoun, when it is used after such, miny, or same.

Ex.-"He pursued such a course as ruined him." "He deceived as many as trusted him." "The daughter has the same inclinations as the mother."

As, at bottom, is perhaps a conjunction; but since a relative must then be always supplied to complete the sense of the following clause, it may as well be parsed as a relative. Some grammarians maintain that it is never a relative, others, that it is always a relative after such, many, or same. The truth lies perhaps between the two extremes. As is used in two different senses. It may recall the identical objects mentioned before, or it may present only similar objects. When, by supplying the necessary words, the meaning would be changed, as should certainly be parsed as a relative. "I bought, at the auction, such mules as were sold as many mules as were sold" I bought the mules that were sold--all the mules that were sold; but, "I bought, at the auction, such mules as the mules were that were sold as many mules as the mules were that were sold," suggests rather that there were two distinct parcels of mules, or that I bought other mules than those which were sold at the auction. Observe also, that, above, some other relative can be substituted for as, especially by changing the preceding such or as many into the, those, or all. So, "He took as many as he could get" He took all that he could get. "He took such apples as pleased him." "She played such tunes as were called for." "He was the father of all such as play on the harp and organ." "As many as came, were baptized." "I will come at such an hour as I can spare." But when I say, "I bought such mules as you have for sale;" "We do not want such men as he is;' as should perhaps be considered a conjunction. In the last example, if parsed as a relative, it can not agree, as a predicate-nominative, with he: we can not say, "He is such men." Locke, however, has the following sentence: "There be some men whom you would rather have your son to be, with five hundred pounds a year, than some other with five thousand pounds." Whom is here used very much like as in the previous example.-This latter sense of as is also analogous to that of than in such sentences as, "I have more money than you have;""He wanted more than he got." In these sentences, than should never be parsed as a relative, for it never expresses, when so used, the identity sometimes denoted by as. Most teachers, to avoid difficult distinctions, deem it best to parse as, construed after such, many, or same, always as a relative pronoun.

83. The compound relative pronouns are preferred to the simple ones, when the speaker means to indicate more forcibly that he refers to an object considered as general or undetermined. Sometimes they are almost equivalent to the simple pronouns.

Ex.-"Whoever [any person that] despises the lowly, knows not the fickleness of fortune"Who despises the lowly, etc. "Take whichever [any one that] you "I'll do whatever [any or every thing that] is right." "Who steals mv purse, steals trash."

like."

These pronouns are parsed like the corresponding simple pronouns; but, as they never refer to a definite or particular object, they have rarely or never an expressed antecedent. The indefinite ever or soever partly represents the antecedent, by being a sort of substitute for the indefinite adjective which must precede the antecedent; hence when the antecedent is expressed or supplied, the ever or soever must generally be dropped; as, "Whoever cares not for others, should not expect their favor"-Any person who cares not for others, should not expect their favor. Ever, from denoting time indefinitely, was naturally extended to place and time, and thence of course to objects.

84. An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. Ex.-"Who came with you?" "What do you want?" "Which is yours {" The interrogative pronouns are who, which, what, and their declined forms.

Each of them may be applied to any person or thing whatsoever; except who, which is applicable to persons only.

85. Who inquires for the name or some other appellation, and

when the name is in the question, it inquires for the character or some description of the person.

Ex.-" Who wrote the book?"

you take me to be?"

"Whose glory did he emulate?" "Whom de "Who was Blennerhasset ?"

86. Which supposes the name known, or disregards it, but seeks further to distinguish a certain individual from others.

Ex.-" Which of you will go with me?" "Which is the Governor ?" "Which is the tigress? Which must I take? Which is your daughter?" "Which is which ?"

87. What goes still further, and inquires into the character or occupation.

Ex.-" What is that fellow?"

Briefly, who seeks to designate; which, to distinguish; and what, to describe.

Ex.-"Who is that gentleman?-Mr. Everett.- Which one?-Edward Everett.What is he?-An eminent scholar and statesman."

Sometimes either who or what may be used in speaking of persons: but in most such instances, who is perhaps a little more respectful.

88. When who, which, or what, occurs in a clause that is in answer or apparently in answer to the same clause used interrogatively, it is neither an interrogative pronoun, nor a relative pronoun in the sense of other relative pronouns; but, according to some grammarians, it is a responsive or an indefinite pronoun. It may, however, be considered a relative pronoun; for it makes its clause dependent as the common relatives do.

Ex.-Interrogative: "Who broke the window?" Responsive relative: "I do not know who broke it." "Do you know who broke it ?"

The following sentences illustrate the different uses of who, which, and what :

Interrogative.

Who came?

Which is the lesson?
What did he buy?
What is truth?

Responsive Relative.

I do not know who came.
Do you know who came?

I remember which is the lesson.
I know what he bought.
Teach me what is truth.

Better: Teach me what truth is.

Common Relative.

I do not know the man who came.

I remember the lesson which I recited.
I admire what he bought.

Teach me what is true.

Hence, when these words are interrogative pronouns, they must stand at or near the beginning of the question; when responsive relative pronouns, the verb or preposition (usually preceding) governs the entire clause, or depends on it; and when common relative pronouns, it relates only to what is denoted by them.

89. The chief other words used occasionally as pronouns, are one, oneself, none, other, another, each other, one another, and that, with their declined forms.

Ex.-"Some one has said, 'A blush is the color of virtue.'" "The best ones." "Several others." "One should not think too highly of oneself." "The old bird

feeds her young ones.". "The brother and sister love each other." "The girle Love one another." "Wives and husbands are, indeed, incessantly complaining of each other."-Johnson. "Put the dozen cups within one another." None [no persons] are completely happy." "The age of modest, industrious, and meritori ous yeomanry is gone; and that [the age] of pining, office-seeking aristocracy is

at hand."

Dr. Whately writes "oneself" in a form analogous to herself, himself, and better, I think, than "one's self."

90. One often refers to mankind indefinitely, or to a class of objects already brought to mind, or obvious from the modifying word or words.

91. Each other and one another are often called reciprocal pronouns. They have a reflexive sense, and represent the relation between any two of the objects as being that between any and every other two of the entire series.

Some grammarians, by supplying words, parse each of the foregoing terms as two words, the first one in apposition with the whole group, and the other as an objective; as, "The two girls love each [one loves the] other" [one]. But "The bad boys threw stones at one another," may mean, each one at the others, as well as, each one at the other one. The Greek language expresses one another by one word, and the German also by one inseparable word that is precisely analogous to our phrase.

"Wie zwei Flammen sich ergreifen, wie

Harfentöne in einander spielen."-Schiller.

Here einander could not be parsed separately; for ein in ander would be a solecism. There are several other words, of the pronominal or definitive adjectives, which are also frequently parsed as pronouns, especially when they refer distributively or emphatically to what has been already introduced. "They fled; some to the woods, and some to the river." They had two horses each." Peace, order, and justice, were all destroyed." "I like neither." It will be best to consider such words pronouns, when they can not be so well disposed of in any other way; but they are frequently parsed as pronouns or adverbs when they might as well or better be parsed as adjectives.

The last group of pronouns which we have considered, do not fall within any one of our three great classes of pronouns. If deemed necessary, they may be called reciprocal, indefinite, distributive, or demonstrative pronouns, according to their sense.

92. In the place of a pronoun, we may frequently put a nour with the same pronoun, or with a word of the same class or nature, placed as an adjective before the noun.

Ex." Who is he?"- What person is he? "Show me what it is"-Show me what thing it is. "Which of the horses will you take?"- Which horse will you take? "I will ride one horse to drive the others," i. e., the other horses. "The pleasures of vice are momentary; those of virtue, everlasting"-The pleasures of vice are momentary; the pleasures of virtue, everlasting.

93. The pronoun is sometimes omitted.

Ex. "Tis Heaven [that] has brought me to the state [which] you see." "There is the man [whom] I saw." [Thou] "Thyself shalt see the act.'

94. An antecedent may be supplied, when it is needed for the sake of other words, or even when it can be easily supplied, and without producing harshness.

Ex.-"Give it to whoever [any one that] needs it ;" or, "Give it to [any person] who (ever) needs it." "Let such [ persons] as hear, take heed." [He]"Who lives to fancy, never can be rich."

Properties.

NOUNS and PRONOUNS have genders, persons, numbers, and cases.

95. PRONOUNS agree with their antecedents, in gender, person, and number.

Genders.

The gender of a word is its meaning in regard to sex.

There are four genders; the masculine, the feminine, the common, and the neuter.

GENDERS meant originally kinds of sorts; thence, kinds in reference to sex; and thence, the sense and form of words as adapted to disti iguish objects in regard to sex.

96. The masculine gender denotes males.

Ex.-Uncle, father, son, governor, Mr. Robertson, executor, dog, he, himself. 97. The feminine gender denotes females.

Ex.-Aunt, mother, daughter, girl, hen, goose, heroine, seamstress, she, herself 98. The common gender denotes either males or females, or both.

Ex.-Persons, parents, children, cat, insects, I, you, they, who.

99. The neuter gender denotes neither males nor females. Ex.-Tree, house, city, heaven, beauty, body, size, manhood, soul, it, what. The neuter gender pertains chiefly to things, and to qualities or other attributes.

Common gender of course does not imply common sex, but is the characteristic of those substantives which denote living beings, without showing in themselves whether males or females are meant, being equally applicable to both. The sex may, however, be sometimes ascertained from some other word in the sentence; and then the words should be parsed accordingly.

Ex.-"The child and his mother were in good health." Here child is masculine, as shown by his.

Some grammarians reject the "common gender," and would parse such words as parents and friends, as of the masculine and feminine gender," "of the masculine or feminine gender," "of the masculine gender," or "of the feminine gender," according to the sense. I see no valid objection to the term common gender, provided gender and sex be not, as they frequently are, confounded. They are distinct in meaning: gender is a property belonging to words only; and sex, to objects.

100. Nouns strictly applicable to males only, or to females only, are sometimes used to denote both. This usually occurs when the speaker aims at brevity of speech, and when the sex is not important to his design. The masculine term is generally preferred.

Ex.-"Horses are fond of green pastures;" i. e., horses, and mares too. "The Jews are scattered over the whole world." "Heirs are often disappointed." "I saw geese and ducks in the pond." "The poets of England." But in connection with a proper name, only the appropriate term will harmonize in sense; as, "The poet Homer;" "The poetess Sappho."

101. Sometimes animals are regarded as male or female, not from their sex, but from their general character-from having masculine or feminine qualities.

"The

Ex.-"The lion meets his foe boldly." "The for made his escape." spider weaves her web." "The dove smooths her feathers." "The timid hare leaps from her covert." "Every bee minds her own business."-Addison. "The ant is a very cleanly insect, and throws out of her nest all the remains of the corn on which she feeds."-Id. Had these bees and ants appeared to Addison as uninteresting, ordinary things, he would probably have used "it" and "its;" but their attractive, amiable, and almost rational qualities made the adoption of the femine gender peculiarly elegant.