161. What, in close connection with a plural, is sometimes used in the plural number.

Ex.-" We were now at the mercy of what ARE CALLED guerillas."-Travels in Mexico. "I must now turn to the faults, or what APPEAR such to me."-Byron. Other was formerly sometimes used for others.

Another an other; hence, singular.

noun.

None (no-one) is singular or plural, and it is generally used for no and a

For more in regard to the Numbers of Pronouns, see page 8. See also pp. 210–211.

Cases.

The cases are the relations of substantives to other words, in the forming of sentences.

There are three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

Some grammarians give another case, the independent, or absolute; but there seems to be no more propriety in distinguishing this case from the nominative, than there would be in dividing the differently governed objective cases into two or three classes.

162. The nominative case denotes the condition of a substantive that is used as the subject of a predicate.

Ex.-"The moon SHINES beautifully upon the garden." "John and James ARE PLAYING, but you and I ARE STUDYING.' "The murderer WAS HANGED." "Dear ARE the recollections of youth." "The sum of five thousand dollars WAS PAID." The nominative can always be found by asking a question with who or what before the verb. "The river is deep." What is deep? The river.

163. A substantive is also in the nominative case, when it is used independently or absolutely.

Ex.-Independently: "John, you may go for some water." "You may recite, Mary." "Mr. President, it is natural for man to indulge in the illusions of Hope." "Rise, fellow-men! our country yet remains." "Ye flowers that cluster by eternal frosts." "And Harry's flesh it fell away." "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." "O Absalom! Absalom! my son, my son!" "Reputation! reputation! oh, I have lost it!" "And then she died, poor thing!" "Webster's Dictionary, Unabridged." California: what can you say about it!" "His bed and board! he never had any !"'

"The isles of Greece! the isles of Greece !

Where burning Sappho loved and sung."—Byron.

The student can observe, that the Italicized words neither govern other words nor are they governed by other words. Such substantives generally occur in addresses or in exclamations; or, rather, they are used to direct the attention of some one addressed, to what the speaker says, or else to draw attention to what the word denotes. Sometimes, as in the last example above, they imply that the speaker's feelings are so enkindled by the contemplation of the object, that the flood of accumulated feeling bursts forth at once, and without an effort on his part. In the sentence, "Fiddle-sticks! who cares for what he thinks?" fiddle-sticks is simply an interjection, because it is used merely as the sign of a sudden emotion, and is not uttered to draw attention to the musical implements themselves.

Absolutely: "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. "I being sick, the business was neglected." "Flash following flash, we had but little hope." "The work being done, we went to the river to fish" When the work was done, &c, "His being a foreigner, was the cause of his defeat"-He was defeated because he was a foreigner. "No one was aware of his being a runaway," better, "No one was aware that he was a runaway." "To become a spendthrift, is easy"-A person may easily become a spendthrift. "To be a respectable preacher or doctor, is

My

asier than to be a respectable lawyer." "The wolf [being] at bay, the dogs barked the more." "What more could they do, a youth [being] their leader." luty as [being] her instructor." "His nomination, as [to be] bishop [German, als Bischof zu seinas bishop to be], was confirmed." By a more strained supply of words, Rule 7th may be applied in the last two examples: "My duty, considered as being her instructor's" [duty]. "His nomination, considered as to be the bishop's" [nomination], &c.

By carefully examining the foregoing examples, the student can observe that the phrases having substantives used absolutely, are but abridged expressions for clauses beginning with when, while, since, because, or inasmuch as, &c.; and that when they are converted into clauses, the substantives become nominatives according to Rule 1st or 7th.

The early tendency of our language rather was, to express substantives used absolutely, in the objective case, according to the analogy of Greek and Latin; and Milton wrote, "Him [being] destroyed, or won to what may work his utter loss." But modern custom is decidedly in favor of the nominative.

a verb.

A noun of the first or the second person, is never used as the subject of

Ex. "I William Smith believe," &c. "Children, obey your parents." Believe agrees with I, as its nominative; and obey with ye, or you, understood.

164. A word in the possessive case denotes an object to which something belongs or pertains.

The word in the possessive case may denote the originator, or the first owner, or the full owner, or a partial owner, or a temporary owner, or an intended owner, or the whole object comprising the thing possessed as a part. The other substantive may denote a material object, a quality, an action, or a state.

Ex.-"Irving's works; Harper's Ferry; my horse; my father; my country; my cup and saucer; men's and boys' boots for sale here; my head; my sufferings." "John's brother-happiness-haste-running-sleeping." "Nature's gifts." "He bought a place in Boone's settlement, called Kemper's farm." "The master's slave and the slave's master." "Ambition's rise may be virtue's fall." "The lily's beauty." "India's coral strand." "John's head is large."

165. The possessive case of every noun not ending in the sound of 8, is indicated by annexing 's.

Ex.-"Harry's slate; the children's books; Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; for the Atrida's sake." The 's is a contraction of the old possessive sign, es or is; "The kingis crowne;" "In widdowes habite."-Chaucer.

166. To plurals ending in s, only the apostrophe (") is added; and to nouns of the singular number, ending in the sound of S, is added, but sometimes the apostrophe only.

"King

Ex.-"Boys' sports;" "Mechanics' Bank." "Charles's affairs."-Prescott. "Louis's reigu."-Macaulay. "Mr. Brooks's integrity."-E. Everett. James's Bible."-Geo. P. Marsh. "Brookes's translation."-Id. "Morris and Willis's Office."-N. P. Willis. "The title of Phillips's dictionary."-J. E. Worcester. "Confucius's system."-Oxford Professor: England. "Some of Eschylus's and Euripides's plays open in this manner."-Blair's Rhetoric. thenes's life."-Ib. "From Stiles's pocket into Nokes's."-Hudibras. "Dennis's Works."-Pope. "Miss's fine lunardi." -Burns. "Adonis's death."-Mrs. Browning. "In King James' Version."-R. G. White. "In the Countess's speech."-Id. "Bullions' Grammar."-Bullions. "Sanders' Series of Readers."-Sanders.

"Davies' Mathematics."-Davies.

"Demos.

The phrases" For conscience' sake," "For goodness' sake," "For Jesus' sake," are rather idiomatic exceptions than fair illustrations of a general principle. It has been said that the possessive s may be omitted, when each of the last two syllables of the possessive word begins with an 8-sound, and the next word also begins with an s-sound; as, Augustus' speech."

In poetry, when the singular ends in a hissing sound, the s may be used or omitted to suit the poet's convenience; but in prose, I think it should generally be used where it is omitted. If not too many hissing sounds come together, and if the possessive s would not be too far removed from an accented syllable, it should doutbless be used; and in other cases, of is probably always preferable. People do not hesitate to write, "The horse's heels;" "The young prince's father." And, if sound is to determine the use or the omission of the s, I can not see why many other words are less entitled to the & than such words as these. Few full possessives would be harsher or heavier than such plural words as glasses, carcasses, atlases, duchesses, actresses, &c., which nobody hesi tates to use when needed. Besides, the s is often needed to make the sense clear. "Watt's works" and "Watts' works" are intelligible only to the eye, and should be "Watt's works" and "Watts's works." I can not concur with Dr. Bullions, in the propriety of omitting the s in written language, but retaining it in spoken. Let language be written as it is spoken; at least, let us not introduce any more anomalies in this respect.

A harsh possessive may often be avoided by converting it into an adjective, or by using of. "A fox's tail"-A fox tail; "Bunker Hill" is now more commonly used than "Bunker's Hill;" and "Lucas Place" is quite as intelligible as "Lucas's Place;" "Hastings' trial" or "Hastings's trial"-The trial of Hastings. "Socrates's life and death"-The life and death of Socrates; "John's brother's wife's sister"-The sister of John's brother's wife. But "A summer's day" is not necessarily equivalent to "A summer day:" nor does of always imply possession; as, 66 A spring of clear water;" "To have some idea of the subject."

167. When two or more consecutive words, taken together, are used to denote but one possessor, or when the same object belongs to several in common, the possessive sign is usually annexed but once, and immediately before the name of the object possessed, but not always to the word in the possessive case.

Ex.-"William Henry Harrison's election;" "Her Majesty Queen Victoria's government;" ;" "The Bishop of Landaff's residence;" "At Hall's, the baker." "The captain of the Fulton's wife died yesterday." Here captain is in the possessive case, governed by wife; and Fulton in the objective case, governed by of. "The Duke of Wellington's achievements." Here Duke of Wellington's may be parsed as one noun, so also may Bishop of Landaff's, and most such expressions. Barton, Hutchinson, and Spotswood's store." Here Burton, Hutchinson, and Spotswood's, are each in the possessive case, governed by store. "Barton's, Hutchinson's, and Spotswood's store"-Barton's store, Hutchinson's store, and Spotswood's store; or, Barton's and Hutchinson's are governed by store understood.

The various sorts of terms or phrases that may denote possessors, and the best modes of expressing the sense of the possessive case wherever difficulties present themselves, may be briefly noticed as follows:

Monosyllables ending with the sound of s,- 's; dissyllables,-'s or of, rarely'; words of more syllables,—of, rarely ', or else 's, when the last syllable thus formed is not too far from the primary or the secondary

accent.

Ex.-"Sparks's Washington;" "Edwards's West Indies;" "The landing of Cornwallis; "Euphrates' banks."

Compound names,―sign to the last word. "Edward Everett's Works." Complex names, or single terms with single adjuncts, sign to the last word, or use of; with adjuncts or compound adjuncts,-of.

Ex.-"The Duke of Wellington's residence;" "The Report of the Secretary of the Navy" "The wife of a member of Congress;" "An Act of the Legislature of the State of New York."

Apposition, the two terms used like one name,-sign at the end; prin

cipal term, with explanatory part short,-sign to either, but not to both; explanatory part long, or consisting of two or more nouns,-sign to the first, or use of.

Ex.-"The Emperor Napoleon's grave;" "At Smith's, the bookseller;" "At Smith the bookseller's;" Mr. Crawford's Report, the Secretary of the Treasury;" better, "The Report of Mr. Crawford, the Secretary of the Treasury;" "The psalms of David, the king, priest, and poet of the Jews;""From the death of Edward the Third to the reign of Queen Elizabeth;" "The residence of George Clinton, ex-governor of New York, and vice-president of the United States."

Series of terms, and common possession,-sign to the last term; but not common possession,-sign to each term.

Ex.-"Bolton, Dixon, and Glover's farm;" "Bolton's, Dixon's, and Glover's farm." "Bolton, Dixon, and Glover's farms," rather implies joint or common possession. "Bolton's, Dixon's, and Glover's farms," implies that each man owns two or more farms.

168. The objective case denotes the condition of a substantive that is used as the object of a verb or preposition.

"I

Ex.-"Mary PLUCKED a fresh rose." "I saw Mary PLUCKING a fresh rose." "Mary went to PLUCK a fresh rose." "A clear stream FROM the mountain flowed DOWN the valley." "Whom do you see?" "I saw him gathering apples.' came TO HEAR him, or WITH the expectation of HEARING him." The word in the objective case can be readily found by asking a question with whom or what after the verb or preposition. Thus, "The soldiers carried their bleeding companion to the river." Carried whom? Companion. To what? River.

169. The object may be a verbal noun, or consist of an entire phrase or clause.

and jumping better than You do not consider how "I ordered the horse to be

Ex.-"My brother likes to study, but I like running studying." He knew to build the lofty rhyme." little most people care for what is not to their interest." brought.' To determine whether a verb followed by a clause or a phrase is transitive, we must consider whether a noun or a pronoun put in the place of the phrase or clause, would be governed by the verb or preposition.

As an entire clause may be the object of a verb or preposition, so may an entire phrase beginning with a substantive followed by an infinitive. The governing word does not govern the noun or pronoun alone, yet it has sufficient influence over it, as a part of its object, (a part otherwise uncontrolled.) to determine its case; and this influence is sufficient for the application of Rule 4th

or 5th.

Ex.-"Let me finish the problem." "I desire you to go." "I supposed him to be your brother." 'He commanded the horse to be brought." "One word is too

often profaned for me to profane it."

The effort has been made several times, to implant from the Latin into the English, a Rule for "the subject of the infinitive;" but most grammarians have discarded the innovation without even deigning to give it a critical notice or a formal rejection. I too incline to reject it. "Rule XI. The infinitive has sometimes a subject in the objective case.' Butler's Grammar. OBJECTIONS:-1. The English language never allows an object before an infinitive, unless there is at the same time a governing word before the object; hut the Latin sometimes allows an intransitive verb before such an object, and therefore differs from our language, and requires a Rule for the subject of the infinitive. We can say, "Gaudeo te valere:" but not, "I rejoice thee to be well." 2. Though Mr. Butler's few ex amples are plain and plausible enough, as examples made or selected for a Rule usually are, yet it is impossible to tell, in every instance, whether the object should be parsed as the "subject" of the infinitive or as the "object" of the preceding verb. 3. The participle has sometimes as good a right to such a subject as the infinitive; thus, "I saw the sun rise" and "I saw the sun rising," differ no more than "The sun rises" and "The sun is rising."

170. A passive verb, since it converts its object into its subject, can not have an object.

171. A few verbs may have two different objects at once, provided they can govern them as well separately.

Ex." He asked me a question"-" He asked me" and "He asked a question;" but "He gave me a question," is not equivalent to “He gave me” and “He gave a question."

When a verb governing two objects is made passive, either object, but not both, may be made the nominative. The other object remains in the objective case; but as a passive verb can not govern an object, the other object, if it denotes the person, is governed by a preposition expressed or understood; and if it denotes the thing, it may be referred to Rule 6th.

Ex. "My mother taught me arithmetic"-I was taught arithmetic by my mother, or, Arithmetic was taught (to) me by my mother. Observe the difference: "James struck him a blow;" "James wrote him a letter1;" "James called him1 his friend."

172. A substantive is also in the objective case, wlien it is used without a governing word, yet modifies like an adjunct or adverb some other word. The suppressed governing word is a preposition.

Ex. "I do not care a straw?" Care not how much? "The wall was 1200 feet long, and 40 feet high." How long? how high? "It was richly worth a dollar." Worth how much? "We went home." Whither? "The slippered pantaloon, a world too wide."-Shak. How much too wide? "He is head and heels in debt." To what extent? "He wore his coat cloak fashion." How? "I was taught grammar." Taught as to what?-Sometimes a substantive may be referred to the foregoing principle, or parsed at once as an adverb. Some grammarians prefer to consider every such expression elliptical, and to supply a prepDsition, which can generally be done without straining the matter very far.

173. There are expressions, however, obviously elliptical.

Ex.-"Dr. Rush, No. 340, Pine Street, Philadelphia, Penn."-To Dr. Rush, at No. 340, on Pine Street, in Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania. "Jan. 1st, 1860"On the first day of January, in the year 1860. "Ah me!"-Ah, what has happened to me! So," Me miserable!" or else it may be considered simply a Latinism, used by Milton for the nominative absolute.

Same Case.

174. A substantive that does not bring another person or thing into the sentence, and is used merely for explanation, emphasis, or description, must be in the same case as the one denoting the person or thing.

Ex.-"COMPANY, villainous company, has been the ruin of me." "I Joseph Walter, a justice of the peace, certify," &c. CORTES, the conqueror of Mexico, was a brave man." "I, also I, am an American." "The Emperor Napoleon's grave." "This book is John's, my classmate." It was I." "We will go ourselves." "They crowned him king.' "His purse was wealth, his word a bond." "Will sneaks a scrivener, an exceeding knave." The one substantive may be called the principal term; and the other, the explanatory term.

175. Frequently, the explanatory term is predicated or assumed of the other, by means of sone neuter, intransitive, or passive verb. The explanatory term is then usually called a predicate-substantive. The verb, if any other than be, shows how the title or characteristic is acquired or made known.

Ex.-"The world is but a stage, and all the men and women [arc] merely players.' ." "My friend was appointed judge." "She walks a queen" She is a queen, and displays it in her walk; or, She is not a queen, but affects the airs of one. The latter sense would seem to require Rule 6th, but the analogy of foreign languages rather requires Rule 7th in either sense. "Tom struts a soldier." "The soldiers